Dogs
are People Two
(BBC)- FOR the past two years, my colleagues and I have been
training dogs to go in an
M.R.I. scanner — completely awake and unrestrained. Our goal has been to
determine how dog’s brains work and, even more important, what they think of us humans.
Now, after training and scanning a dozen dogs, my one inescapable
conclusion is this: dogs are people, too.
Because dogs can’t speak, scientists
have relied on behavioral observations
to infer what dogs are thinking. It is a tricky business. You can’t ask a dog
why he does something. And you certainly can’t ask him how he feels. The
prospect of ferreting out animal emotions scares many scientists. After all, animal research is big business.
It has been easy to sidestep the difficult questions about animal sentience and
emotions because they have been unanswerable.
Until now, By looking directly at their
brains and bypassing the
constraints of behaviorism, M.R.I.’s can tell us about dogs’ internal states. M.R.I.’s are conducted in loud,
confined spaces. People don’t
like them, and you have to hold absolutely still during the procedure.
Conventional veterinary practice says you have to anesthetize animals so they don’t move
during a scan. But you can’t study brain function in an anesthetized animal. At
least not anything interesting like perception or emotion.
From the beginning, we treated the dogs as persons. We had a consent form, which was modeled after children’s consent form but
signed by the dog’s owner. We emphasized that participation was voluntary, and
that the dog had the right to quit the study. We used only positive training
methods. No sedation. No restraints. If the
dogs didn’t want to be in the M.R.I. scanner, they could leave. Same as
any human volunteer.
My dog Callie was the first. Rescued
from a shelter, Callie was a skinny black terrier mix, what is called a feist
in the southern Appalachians , from where she
came. True to her roots, she
preferred hunting squirrels
and rabbits in the backyard
to curling up in my lap. She had a natural inquisitiveness, which probably
landed her in the shelter in the first place, but also made training a breeze.
With the help of my friend Mark Spivak,
a dog trainer, we started teaching Callie to go into an M.R.I. simulator that I
built in my living room. She learned to walk up steps into a tube, place her head in a custom-fitted chin
rest, and hold rock-still for periods
of up to 30 seconds. Oh, and
she had to learn to wear earmuffs
to protect her sensitive hearing from the 95
decibels of noise the scanner makes.
After months of training and some
trials-and-errors at the real M.R.I. scanner, we were rewarded with the
first maps of brain activity.
For our first tests, we measured Callie’s brain response to two hand signals in
the scanner. In later experiments,
not yet published, we determined which parts
of her brain distinguished the scents
of familiar and unfamiliar dogs
and humans.
Soon, the local dog community learned
of our quest to determine what dogs
are thinking. Within a year, we had assembled a team of a dozen dogs who were all “M.R.I.-certified.”
Although we are just beginning to
answer basic questions about
the canine brain, we cannot ignore the striking similarity between dogs and humans in both the structure and function of a key brain
region: the caudate nucleus.
Rich in dopamine receptors, the caudate sits between the brainstem and the
cortex. In humans, the
caudate plays a key role in the anticipation of things we enjoy, like food,
love and money. But can we flip this association around and infer what a person
is thinking just by measuring caudate activity? Because of the overwhelming
complexity of how different parts
of the brain are connected to one another, it is not usually possible to pin a
single cognitive function or emotion to a single brain region.
But the caudate may be an exception. Specific parts of the caudate stand out
for their consistent activation to many
things that humans
enjoy. Caudate activation is so consistent that under the right circumstances, it can predict
our preferences for food,
music and even beauty.
TRANSLATION
UNTUK dua tahun belakangan ini, rekan kerja saya
dan saya telah melatih banyak anjing untuk memasuki pemindai M.R.I. — secara sadar sepenuhnya tanpa pengekang. Tujuan kita tidak
lain untuk menentukan bagaimana otak anjing bekerja dan, bahkan lebih penting
lagi, apa yang mereka pikirkan tentang kita para manusia.
Sekarang, setelah pelatihan dan
pemindaian selusin ekor anjing, satu kesimpulan saya yang tak dapat di hindari adalah
ini: anjing-anjing adalah manusia, juga.
Karena anjing-anjing tidak bisa
berbicara, para ilmuwan telah bergantung pada beberapa pengamatan perilaku
untuk menyimpulkan apa yang anjing–anjing pikirkan. Ini adalah pekerjaan yang
rumit. Kalian tidak bisa bertanya kepada anjing mengapa dia melakukan suatu
hal. Dan kalian pastinya tidak bisa tanyakan dia bagaimana perasaannya. membayangankan
mengejar - ngejar emosi hewan membuat takut banyak ilmuwan. Lagipula,
penilitian binatang merupakan bisnis yang besar. Sudah mudah untuk menghindari
pertanyaan pertanyaan sulit tentang kemampuan merasa dan emosi-emosi hewan
karena itu semua tidak dapat terjawab.
Hingga saat ini, dengan melihat
langsung ke otak mereka dan mengabaikan batasan batasan prilaku, M.R.I. dapat
memberitahu kita tentang keaadaan organ dalam anjing. M.R.I. di lakukan didalam
ruang yang sempit dan berisik. Banyak orang
tidak suka itu, dan kalian harus terbujur kaku selama prosedur berjalan.
Praktek dokter hewan umum mengatakan kalian harus membius hewan terlebih dahulu
agar mereka tidak bergerak selama waktu pindai. Namun kalian tidak bisa mempelajari fungsi otak pada
hewan yang terbius. Setidaknya bukan hal menarik seperti tanggapan atau emosi.
Dari awal, kami memperlakukan anjing-anjing
seperti manusia. Kami mendapat bentuk persetujuan, yang mana mencontoh dari
bentuk persutujuan untuk anak anak tapi di tanda tangani oleh pemilik anjing–anjing
tersebut. Kami menekankan bahwa keikutsertaan di lakukan secara sukarela, dan
anjing tersebut punya hak untuk keluar dari penelitian. Kami hanya menggunakan
cara berlatih yang baik. Tanpa obat penenang. Tanpa pengekangan–pengekangan.
Jika anjing-anjing tersebut tidak ingin berada di dalam pemindai M.R.I., mereka
bisa pergi. Sama seperti sukarelawan manusia.
Anjing saya Callie menjadi sukarelawan
pertama. Di selamatkan dari penampung, Callie adalah anjing hitam kurus terrier
campuran, yang di panggil si riang di Appalachians
bagian selatan, dimana dia berasal. Asli dari jenisnya, dia memilih berburu beberapa
tupai dan kelinci di halaman belakang daripada bergulung di atas pangkuan saya.
Dia memiliki sifat rasa ingin tahu yang alami, yang mungkin membuat dia
ditempatkan di dalam penampungan, akan tetapi membuat latihan menjadi mudah.
Dengan bantuan dari teman saya Mark
Spivak, pelatih anjing, kami mulai mengajari Callie untuk masuk ke dalam tiruan
M.R.I yang saya buat di ruang tamu saya.
Dia belajar melangkah masuk ke dalam tabung ruangan, meletakan kepalanya
di atas tatakan dagu buatan, dan terdiam kaku untuk beberapa waktu hingga 30
detik. Oh, dan dia belajar menggunakan penutup telinga untuk melindungi
pendengarannya yang sensitif dari suara berisik 95 desibel yang pemindai
hasilkan.
Setelah beberapa bulan berlatih dan beberapa
percobaan-dan-gagal menggunakan pemindai M.R.I. sungguhan, kami dihadiahi
sebuah peta aktifitas otak yang pertama. Untuk pengujian pertama kami, kami
mengukur respon otak Callie akan sinyal dua tangan di pemindai. Di percobaan
selanjutnya, yang belum di siarkan, kami menetapkan bagian-bagian mana dari
otaknya yang membedakan bau-bauan dari beberapa anjing dan manusia yang di
kenal dan tidak dikenal.
Segera, komunita anjing setempat
mempelajari penyelidikan kami untuk menentukan apa yang anjing-anjing pikirkan.
Dalam setahun, kami telah membentuk sebuah kelompok dari selusin anjing, yang
mana semua “bersertifikat M.R.I.”
Walaupun kami baru memulai menjawab
pertanyaan dasar tentang otak kaninus, kami tidak bisa mengabaikan kesamaan
yang menarik antara para anjing dan manusia dalam dua hal susunan dan kegunaan
bagian penting otak: yaitu inti kaudatus.
Kaya akan banyak penerima dopamine,
kaudatus berada di antara batang otak dan kulitnya. Pada manusia, kaudatus
berperan di pengharapan akan beberapa hal yang kita suka, seperti makanan,
cinta dan uang. Tapi bisa kah kita membalikan hubungan ini dan menyimpulkan apa
yang seseorang pikirkan hanya dengan mengukur aktifitas kaudatus? Karena kerumitan
yang berlimpah dari beberapa bagian berbeda di otak saling berhubungan satu
sama lain, ini biasanya tidak mungkin untuk mencocokan sebuah fungsi kognitif
dan emosi ke satu bagian otak.
Namun kaudatus mungkin sebuah
pengecualian. Bagian tertentu dari kaudatus menunjukan aktifasi mereka untuk
beberapa hal yang di sukai para manusia. Kegiatan kaudatus sangatlah tetap di
bawah keadaan yang sesuai, kaudatus bisa memperikirakan pilihan kita atas
makanan, musik dan bahkan kecantikan.
PLURAL NOUNS
two year(s) : this plural noun is followed after
cardinal number two and the noun is in the rule number 1 that have sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, x, so s
added.
colleague(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
dog(s) : this plural noun represent in rule
number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
beside than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
us human(s) : us that shows some of persons and this plural noun represent in
rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
a dozen dog(s) : this plural is
followed by cardinal number a dozen (
twelve) and the noun is in the rule
number 1. so s is added.
Scientist(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
Observation(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
many scientist(s) : this is a plural
noun because many is a quantifier
determiner, and the plural noun represent in rule number 1, because the
singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh,
x, so s is added.
Brain(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
Space(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
Animal(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
dogs’ : this noun is a possessive
inflectional form, because a plural noun becomes possessive by the addition
of ‘ alone to the final s.
persons : this plural noun represent in
rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
Childr(en)’s : this plural noun is
irregular plurals that take an en
ending change like in the rule number 5.
Root(s) : this plural noun represent in
rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
Squirrel(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
Rabbit(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
Step(s) : this plural noun represent in
rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
Period(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
30 second(s) : this plural is followed
by a cardinal number 30, and the noun is in the rule number 1. so s is
added.
Earmuff(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
95 decibel(s) : this plural is followed
by a cardinal number 95, and the noun is in the rule number 1. so s is
added.
Month(s) : this plural noun represent
in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound
spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s
is added.
some trial(s)-and-error(s) : this is a
plural noun because some is a
quantifier determiner, and the plural noun represent in rule number 1, because
the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch,
sh, x, so s is added.
first map(s) : this noun is followed by
ordinal number first, and this plural
noun represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a
sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
experiment(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
Part(s) : this plural noun represent in
rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled
besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is
added.
the scent(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
Question(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
Receptor(s) : this plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
different parts : different means
compares one thing to another which have a little similarity, that means need
more than two things to compare. And the plural noun
represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have a sibilant
sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
many thing(s) : this is a
plural noun because many is a
quantifier determiner, and the plural noun represent in rule number 1, because
the singular of this noun have a sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch,
sh, x, so s is added.
circumstance(s) : this
plural noun represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have
a sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
preference(s) : this
plural noun represent in rule number 1, because the singular of this noun have
a sibilant sound spelled besides than s, z, ch, sh, x, so s is added.
